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The Design Innovation Spectrum: An Overview of Design Influences on Innovation for Manufacturing Companies

1 Manchester Schoolhouse of Art, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
2 College of Engineering, Design and Concrete Sciences, Brunel University London, London, Great britain

This paper discusses the expanding parameters of design and innovation, and constructs a design innovation spectrum—a framework presenting a holistic overview of design influences on innovation, in order to comprehend, assess, and prioritise the areas of comeback to increase the innovativeness of manufacturing companies. The enquiry considers manufacturing industry considering re-establishing manufacturing strength is a key agenda for counterbalanced economic growth and stability, especially in advanced countries. This empirical research adopted a triangulation arroyo that included a literature review to construct a theoretical blueprint innovation spectrum, which was then evaluated through in-depth interviews by xi design innovation and manufacturing experts to link theories and practicality, and forty-six instance studies of manufacturing companies to empathize its applied implications. The identified design areas were designing, design strategy, and corporate-level design thinking, which were aligned with the parameters of innovation including technological, product/service, procedure, and organisational innovation to create a pattern innovation spectrum, which allows for overall assessment of design innovation capabilities, to be used by both internal and/or external design supporting teams to improve manufacturing companies' innovativeness through design.

Keywords — Design Innovation, Design Innovation Spectrum, Improving Innovativeness, Manufacturing.

Relevance to Design Exercise — The design innovation spectrum was developed from this research to contribute to profit (consultancies) and non-profit (governmental and non-governmental) organisations supporting manufacturing companies, by providing a holistic map of design influences on innovation to encourage the employ of extensive areas of design to increment various forms of innovation to enhance global competitiveness.

Commendation: Na, J., Choi, Y., & Harrison, D. (2017). The design innovation spectrum: An overview of design influences on innovation for manufacturing companies. International Journal of Design, eleven(ii), 13-24.

Received December 16, 2016; Accepted May 13, 2017; Published August 31, 2017.

Copyright: © 2017 Na, Choi, and Harrison. Copyright for this article is retained by the authors, with get-go publication rights granted to the International Journal of Design. All journal content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed nether a Creative Eatables Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs ii.5 License. By virtue of their appearance in this open-admission journal, manufactures are costless to employ, with proper attribution, in educational and other non-commercial settings.

*Respective Author: jeahoona@gmail.com

Jea Hoo Na is a Inquiry Associate at Manchester School of Fine art, Manchester Metropolitan University. He earned his PhD in Design Innovation at Brunel University London with a comprehensive study of design innovation framework for manufacturing companies in the UK. His principal inquiry interests accept been on the agreement full spectrum of blueprint for innovation in both commercial and social context. He has extensive experiences on commercial and academic projects in blueprint innovation, user insights, and social design with Samsung, LG, Nokia, Ship for London (TfL), Korea Evaluation Constitute of Industrial Technology (KEIT), Brunel University London, and University of Birmingham.

Youngok Choi is a senior lecturer in the Higher of Technology, Design and Physical Sciences at Brunel University London. Her research interests encompass the role of design in economic growth and improving the quality of people's lives, and hence sustainable development. The strategic apply of design underpins much of her research activities. She has been involved in many design research projects involving design policy and strategy, the social value of pattern, design for didactics, and social innovation. She has besides worked on projects with industry partners, including Samsung.

David Harrison has a BSc in applied science scientific discipline and a PhD in robotics. He is a chartered engineer, a member of the IET (Institution of Engineering and Engineering science), and a beau of the Higher Teaching Academy. Harrison is besides a professor in the department of design at Brunel University London, and has research interests in sustainable design and innovative approaches to electronic manufacturing. He has adult, patented, and successfully licensed a number of new manufacturing processes in printed electronics.

Introduction

The role of design in businesses has expanded over the years: no longer simply about enhancing aesthetics and functionalities, information technology now makes a critical contribution to fostering organisations' innovation, to enable companies to increment their competitiveness (Blaich, 1988; Brown, 2009; Fraser, 2009; Gemser, 1997; Gorb, 1986; Mozota, 1990; Neumeier, 2008; Press & Cooper, 2003; Swann & Birke, 2005; Trueman & Jobber, 1998). The influence of design for innovation tin be described as a creative process: its issue enables a company to increase innovativeness by using the full spectrum of design, including designing (action to create a production), pattern strategy (management of the design process), and corporate-level design thinking (the philosophy and method of pattern applied to business management). This is crucial in any organisation as it demonstrates design's contribution to the extensive areas of innovation where innovation is even so an important calendar for top-level managers in companies around the world (Boston Consulting Grouping, 2014; PricewaterhouseCoopers [PwC], 2014), and is considered an essential element for a successful company (Department of Trade and Manufacture [DTI], 2006; Hansen & Birkinshaw, 2007; Jolly, 2010; Honey, Roper, & Du, 2009; PwC, 2013a; Tucker, 2001).

In this research, the extensive role of design and its influences on innovation are studied in a context of manufacturing because of the decline of industry despite its significant contribution for economic growth and raising living standards (Manyika et al., 2012). The economical trend of the earth'due south 7 major avant-garde economies (G7)—Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the The states, and the Uk—shows an increased proportion of gross domestic production (GDP) for service industries compared with manufacturing industry. This change in composition is nearly noticeable in the Great britain where the GDP share of manufacturing was the highest among the G7 in 1948 (36% normal gross value added—GVA) simply the lowest in 2013 with only 10% normal GVA (Banks, Hamroush, Taylor, & Hardie, 2014). The consequences of this economic imbalance were most noticeable during the 2008 global economic downturn which showed how the overreliance on service industries tin can cause great instability in a nation's economy, and demonstrated how manufacturing can contribute towards stabilising and balancing the economic system (EEF, 2009; Prest, 2008; PwC, 2009; Temple, 2011). The UK regime is therefore condign increasingly aware of the importance of manufacturing manufacture for United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland economical growth and competitiveness (Department for Business Innovation and Skills [BIS], 2010b) and innovation in manufacturing has go an increasingly important evolution expanse for both the UK government and industry (BIS, 2011; PwC, 2013b). This newspaper uses U.k. manufacturing companies as a case report of advanced countries—and mayhap developing countries—which accept in the past used manufacturing to boost their economic competitiveness but are now experiencing a shift in focus to other industries, including services, to show how design innovation can help increase innovativeness in manufacturing companies to gain global competitiveness and raise national economic system.

The contribution of pattern for manufacturing companies to increase innovativeness is therefore an important agenda. However, despite the interlinking relationships between design and innovation the wider spectrum of blueprint—including at the operational level (the action of designing products/services), strategic level (the methodological processes), and corporate level (the philosophical principle) of business organization—is sparsely used in UK manufacturing companies (Cox, 2005; Dumas & Whitfield, 1989; Livesey & Moultrie, 2009; Na & Choi, 2012). This is partly considering of the marginalisation of design in innovation (Cumming, 1998; Freel, 2000; OECD/Eurostat, 2005) and the generalisation of innovation in design studies (Gemser, Candi, & Ende, 2011; Visser, 2009). These researches express the importance of design and innovation, but without a comprehensive integration of different areas of pattern (designing, blueprint strategy, and corporate-level design thinking) and innovation (technological, product, service, process, and organisational innovation). This can crusade defoliation for companies seeking to amend a item type or expanse of innovation but with limited knowledge of the broader design spectrum. This tin can also atomic number 82 to increased 'fuzziness' of the importance of blueprint for innovation, which is particularly problematic when attempting to convince manufacturing companies virtually the extensive benefits of pattern to increment innovativeness (Le Masson, Benoit, & Hatchuel, 2010). Enquiry questions arise from these observations: (i) what are the parameters of design and innovation? (ii) how are the blueprint and innovation areas linked? and (iii) how can all areas of design be implemented in manufacturing companies? This paper therefore aims to create a blueprint innovation spectrum past presenting a holistic overview of design influences on innovation, in guild to embrace, assess, and prioritise the areas of comeback to increase the innovativeness of manufacturing companies. It is anticipated that the design innovation spectrum will be used equally a framework for farther developing an audit tool which can help manufacturing companies demystify design, and encourage the use of the various areas of blueprint to raise innovativeness to increase global competitiveness.

The Enquiry Methodology

The enquiry included five cardinal stages. Firstly, an investigative study was conducted into the meaning and capabilities of pattern, using a literature review and subsequent content assay method to create a theory-based Design Spectrum, which laid a foundation to demonstrate the wide breath of pattern parameters. The second stage was an exploration of the expanding parameters of innovation in the commercial environment. A literature review was as well conducted at this stage, where the theory-based Innovation Spectrum was created to synthesise different theories of innovation to provide an overview of innovation in a company. Farther exploration then took place into the human relationship betwixt design and innovation, to place the link between the two, and create the theoretical Design Innovation Spectrum. In the 3rd phase of the research, the theoretical design innovation spectrum was evaluated by eleven experts, and further exploration of the practical application was conducted. The research used a face-to-face semi-structured interview method, using purposive sampling to select practiced interviewees with at least 20 years' experience of working for or with UK manufacturing companies, to ensure reliable opinions from the representative sectors.

The expert interviewees' evaluation was a qualitative enquiry, intended to place the effectiveness of the phenomenon nether study (Patton, 2001). The interview stakeholders consisted of three groups including a kickoff group of five design practitioners (DP1-DP5): directors of industrial and product design consultancies with considerable experience of turning technological ideas into feasible products. The second stakeholder group was a pattern organisation which supports manufacturing companies to use blueprint more than effectively in the UK, including a Caput of Design and two design advisors (DO1-DO3). The third grouping consisted of the lead technologist, the head of development, and the pattern advisor of a manufacturing organisation (MO1-MO3) which supports the realisation of technology in UK manufacturing. The interview topics included: (i) comprehensiveness of the design innovation spectrum and how to improve the spectrum, (2) increasing acceptance of all the areas of the spectrum in manufacturing companies, (iii) use of design audit tool(s) in practice and how to increment design inspect usage. The information collected from the interviews was analysed using a content analysis (open coding) method where the key discussion topics were adopted equally the major themes of the analysis.

In the quaternary stage of the research, a instance report of forty-six manufacturing companies was used to identify the link between the pattern innovation spectrum and its practical implications. In lodge to select the cases, winners of four innovation awards were examined: two design-oriented (Design Management Europe Awards, dba Blueprint Effectiveness Awards), and two innovation-based (Queen's Awards for Enterprise-innovation, The Manufacturer MX Awards). The awards were chosen for their rigorous judging criteria and recognisability amidst design and manufacturing professionals and academics. The explicit information collection yielded systematic categorisation of the data from diverse sources. In order to empathize the data in the study'south context (i.e., a design innovation spectrum), an ethnographic content assay was used every bit it is a highly interactive manner of analysing data from various sources including news articles, book, magazines, newspapers, and searching for context, underlying meanings, patterns, and processes (Altheide, 1987). Following the interviews, the 5th and final stage of the inquiry analysed and synthesised the data, to create the concluding Design Innovation Spectrum and recommend its applied implications to enhance the innovativeness of manufacturing companies.

The key stages of this research stand for to the enquiry questions mentioned in the introduction. In the starting time and second stage, the inquiry question 'what are the parameters of design and innovation?' was answered. The third and fourth stages of the inquiry answer the second and third research question: 'how are the design and innovation areas linked?', and 'how tin all areas of blueprint be implemented in manufacturing companies?'

The Design Spectrum: The Theoretical Parameters of Pattern

The design spectrum is created in an attempt to understand the wider contribution of design in business in an attainable form. The word 'design' is both a noun and a verb (Bruce & Bessant, 2002; British Standards Institution, 2008; Cooper & Junginger, 2009). The noun ofttimes refers to both tangible and intangible artificial outputs created by specific design disciplines: engineering pattern, product design, fashion design, graphic design, and service design, etc., (Best, 2006; Bruce & Bessant, 2002; Cooper & Press, 1995). The verb 'design' ordinarily describes a cognitive activity which improves a situation (Simon, 1996; Verganti, 2009; Visser, 2009). Information technology is as well described by a C-M theory where C represents concepts and One thousand describes noesis, where pattern is a systematic expansion of concept that simultaneously uses and creates knowledge (Hatchuel & Weil, 2003; Le Masson et al., 2010). This enquiry considers the design in the widest possible sense to construct the Blueprint Spectrum. The three key elements identified through the literature review were: designing (action to create a product), design strategy (direction of the design process), and corporate-level design thinking (the philosophy and method of design applied to concern management). These elements pertain to both determinacy and indeterminacy in design thinking (Buchanan, 1992) where design seeks to solve predetermined problems simply also transforms 'wicked' problems into viable opportunities (BIS, 2010a), therefore balancing analytical and intuitive thinking (Martin, 2009) in the commercial context.

The 'designing' (for production) is defined as a company's activity to create an artefact, including blueprint for manufacture and engineering design (Boothroyd, Dewhurst, & Knight, 2002; Lindbeck, 1995; Poli, 2001). According to UK manufacturing companies, this is the chief activity of blueprint (Livesey & Moultrie, 2009; Na & Choi, 2012), and is conducted by professional designers and design engineers, taking into consideration function, aesthetics, ease of manufacture, etc., which involve technical power to manipulate ideas with appropriate materials, colours, textures, shapes, etc., (Best, 2006; Livesey & Moultrie, 2009; Tether, 2005). Moreover, the 'designing' (for process/image) is also an activeness which creates intangible outcomes: services, brands, and customer experiences. Designing often influences all levels of the business operation as its impact can accept profound influences on the success of the business (Pugh, 1996); however, due to the nature of the work, designing can be placed in the 'activity level' of a company, in Needle's (2010) model of business context. This level of an organisation includes part groups for innovation, performance, marketing, human resource direction, and finance and accounting, all interlinked and influenced by each other, which likewise influence the business context itself.

The business context model also includes the 'strategic level' and the 'organisational level' of a visitor (Needle, 2010). The strategic level includes management decisions which make up one's mind business activities, including the range of products and services, marketing budgets, resource management, and employees. Design strategy operates at the strategic level, dealing with the direction of blueprint in a firm, usually conducted past blueprint mangers and/or senior managers, which is considered important for business success (Best, 2006; Cox, 2005; Design Quango [DC], 2008, 2010; Dumas & Whitfield, 1989; Fernández-Mesa, Alegre-Vidal, Chiva-Gómez, & Antonio Gutiérrez-Gracia, 2013; Tether, 2009). Further to the evolution of pattern strategy, design's capability in the wider context of a company is also considered. Recently described every bit 'design thinking', information technology is concerned with how the pattern principle tin be used in making businesses deal with both the rapid complex changes organisations face in the mod market and as a set up of tools or a method for designers to amend comprehend feasibility, viability, and desirability (Brown, 2009; Liedtka & Ogilvie, 2011; Martin, 2009; Mootee, 2013) with the emphasis that the CEOs must be "designers", referring to pattern thinking as a management methodology (Nussbaum, 2007), and the importance of the business leader'south appreciation of blueprint to ensure a house's success (DC, 2014). Information technology is appropriate to place this at organisational level every bit information technology is concerned with goals, structure, ownership, and organisational or corporate civilisation. For the purpose of this research, information technology will be chosen 'corporate-level design thinking' to distinguish it from the design thinking commonly practised by designers to produce tangible outcomes (designing).

A theoretical pattern spectrum has been created through a synthesis of the cardinal elements of design in the literature, with input from various design academics (see Figure i, which shows the design areas on the elevation row of the diagram). The literature also indicates that blueprint does not necessarily function as a progression of dissimilar levels, i.e., it does not demand 1 surface area to be achieved in society to acquire other areas. Information technology is difficult to distinguish the presence of pattern binomially. Sometimes, a visitor has a stronger presence in one design surface area and a weaker presence in another. Moreover, every bit the distinction between design areas is hard to establish as they are closely linked, dotted lines are used to depict this loose distinction: a phenomenon best described as a spectrum.

Figure ane. Theoretical model of the design spectrum with key terminologies to describe its context in business.

The design spectrum attributes listed in the left column in Figure 1 are derived from various literatures to best describe the areas of the spectrum. Although they are sometimes difficult to distinguish, some full general patterns emerged from the literature. The 'business level' described earlier indicates the possible place of design in the context of an system, and 'creation of' indicates the possible outcome or improvements through using design. 'System' is mentioned in some literatures (Best, 2006; Brown, 2009; Clark & Smith, 2008; Gorb, 1986; Visser, 2009) in the context of the company as whole, not only as a system for a specific product or service (Boothroyd et al., 2002; Bruce & Bessant, 2002). The 'design practitioner/decision-maker' describes the people in an system who are nearly likely to exist direct responsible for particular areas; similarly 'influence of blueprint in... (designing for)' indicates the functions and context of a business which these blueprint decisions will influence. Furthermore, 'required understanding in...' describes areas of cognition and sensation required to brand appropriate decisions. These areas of agreement are non exclusive to professionals of particular design areas, e.g., a good understanding of trends, production processes, user behaviour, etc., which are in the 'designing' area of the spectrum, just are also required by company directors. However, the separation indicates that these areas of understanding are essential for 'designing' a good product/service and user feel, just every bit understanding corporate strategy, pattern thinking, and business policy are essential in corporate-level design thinking. Similarly, 'underlying competence', 'design attribute' and 'benefit' are even harder to separate, and then the dotted lines are removed from these attributes of the pattern spectrum.

The Innovation Spectrum: The Theoretical Parameters of Innovation

The importance of innovation is emphasised in nearly all socio-economical areas, ranging from business and management, economics, organisation studies, innovation and entrepreneurship, engineering science, science and applied science, knowledge direction, and marketing (Baregheh, Rowley, & Sambrook, 2009). They describe innovation as a multi-stage organisational process which transforms ideas into new/improved products, service, or processes to advance, compete, and differentiate in an advisable market. Innovation, like blueprint, has several areas of accent depending on where the most important 'change' for a company lies. Ane of the simpler principles of innovation is described by the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), (at present part of the Department of Business, Innovation & Skills [BIS]) as "the successful exploitation of new ideas" (DTI, 2003, p. 8). This brief powerful description, still widely used by the Great britain government, is seen in the manufacturing sector as a manner to compete in the globalised market (BIS, 2010c). Moreover, the innovation process has been evolving: Rothwell describes four generations of innovation model, where a linear process of applied science push button or market pull has evolved into a more flexible integrated process (Rothwell, 1994).

The parameters of innovation have widened in a way similar to design. Innovation was often seen equally product or service breakthroughs, whether radical or incremental changes, especially in the Uk manufacturing sector. However, Nesta emphasises the importance of 'hidden innovation' in order to compete globally and not remain locked-in to existing technologies and business organisation models (Harris & Cox, 2008). Nesta calls this 'Total Innovation', which includes new organisational structures and business models using existing technologies and beyond (Hidden Innovation Type Ii), and micro-innovations which are developed locally and in pocket-size calibration, often outside of R&D programmes which is hard to measure past conventional indicators (Hidden Innovation Type IV). This is farther emphasised by the OECD/Eurostat (2005) which describes innovation types as product, process, marketing, and organisation; similarly, Nesta describes an Innovation Value Chain: accessing knowledge, building innovation, and commercialising innovation (Roper, Hales, Bryson, & Dearest, 2009). Keeley et. al. (2013) apportioned this farther with Ten Types of Innovation: profit model, network, structure, procedure, production performance, product system, service, aqueduct, make, and customer engagement for an organisation. However, the acknowledgement of broader innovation parameters has been slow to filter through to U.k. manufacturing firms where technological innovation is still the predominant interpretation of innovation (Na & Choi, 2012; Westlake, MacAulay, Gratzke, Bravo-Biosca, & Bakhshi, 2009). This is not surprising, especially in high-value manufacturing where engineering push is an important competitive advantage for them to compete in the global marketplace (PwC, 2009; TSB, 2012b). Nevertheless, as Nesta suggests, embracing other areas of innovation is an increasingly important agenda equally technological innovation is at present sought by emerging economies such as China and India (Harris & Cox, 2008).

In gild to more than easily comprehend the diverse areas of innovation, an overview was created to enable amend understanding of the parameters of innovation within a visitor. The innovation spectrum was thus created, which contains the various theories of innovation including, but not limited to, the Engineering readiness level (TRL) related innovation model by Technology Strategy Lath (TSB, 2012a) for its relevance in the manufacturing sector; the Innovation Value Chain (Hansen & Birkinshaw, 2007) and 'Full Innovation' (Roper et al., 2009) for its overall perspective on innovation in both theoretical and government level perspectives; and Ten Types of Innovation (Keeley et al., 2013) for its practical implication for businesses with a plethora of example studies easily recognisable in the commercial context. The main areas of the innovation spectrum were found to exist technological, production/service, procedure, and organisational innovation, which are strongly interlinked. Yet, for the purpose of the in-depth report, it was necessary to split up these areas. According to Nesta'south total innovation theory (Harris & Cox, 2008), these innovation areas tin can be categorised every bit traditional innovation, which concurs with the more manufacturing-oriented theories of innovation (Laforet & Tann, 2006; Mosey, Clare, & Woodcock, 2002), whereas organisational innovation includes what Nesta calls 'hidden innovations', and other theories which bargain with the broader perspectives of innovation in an organisation (Berkhout, Hartmann, Duin, & Ortt, 2006; Utterback, 1986; W & Anderson, 1996). Some models, including the Innovation Value Chain and Ten Types of Innovation, were de-constructed to best fit in the innovation spectrum (meet Figure two).

Figure two. Theoretical model of the innovation spectrum to illustrate the parameters of innovation within a company.

The Blueprint Innovation Spectrum: The Relationship between Pattern and Innovation

The relationship between design and innovation can exist found in many literatures. However, the scope of blueprint and innovation varies and the clan likewise differs depending on the literature. The research found three master ways in which pattern is related to innovation. Firstly, it provides a 'symbolic representation' as a vision for innovation (Swann & Birke, 2005), which is closely linked to blueprint's capacity to visualise ideas. Secondly, it creates greater meaning for the innovative products and services it delivers (Trueman & Jobber, 1998; Verganti, 2009). Lastly, it underpins how a company, every bit a whole, creates and maintains innovation itself from operational and strategic management (DC, 2014; Mozota, 2003). An important ingredient of all of the listed associations between design and innovation is design's ability to manipulate and visualise creativity to solve an organization's complex or 'wicked' problems at different levels of the system. A DTI (2005) report illustrated this, describing design equally a bridge between scientific noesis and new engineering to produce a usable finish production, emphasising that information technology links creativity and innovation. Nevertheless, in this report, design is still seen as activities within a business: including the disciplines of graphic, interior, fashion, industrial, and engineering design. When design is seen as an activity (i.e., on the left side of the blueprint spectrum,) it is inevitable that design will simply be in one portion of the Innovation Spectrum (Figure 2) rather than having holistic influences on all areas of innovation.

Cox (2005) adopted the influence of pattern in the broader innovation spectrum. He refered to the Third Community Innovation Survey to illustrate that design expense can indeed generate greater innovation impact in i) an increased range of goods/services, ii) improved quality of goods/services, iii) open new markets/increase the market place share, 4) improved production flexibility, v) reduced unit of measurement labour costs, and half dozen) reduce materials and/or free energy apply. Furthermore, pattern's influence can be seen across various areas of manufacturing small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and, as Tether (2009) described, firms using design in both products and services are more probable to produce proficient products and process innovation, although his reference to pattern was more about explicit design (towards the left side of the design spectrum) rather than 'hidden' design (towards the right side of the blueprint spectrum). Design parameters in these reports concentrate on confining design in a form which is regarded equally a part of the firm's activity. This is not surprising since it is more manageable to measure out than that of corporate-level blueprint thinking. However, a theory from Verganti (2009) elaborated blueprint farther by recognising that it can change the meaning of an object, and furthermore of the company producing that object. Although he saw innovation in relation to applied science, this view of design influence demonstrates the importance of pattern in relation to innovation in a wider perspective. Mozota (2003) expanded this further, taking pattern to corporate-level, where it tin can influence changes in the vision and strategy of a company itself, which is where innovation is also seen as an essential function of success. The latest blueprint thinking theories also hash out blueprint at corporate-level and include design influences for organisational innovation (Bertola & Teixeira, 2003), simply it becomes much harder at this bespeak to distinguish and measure design input in an arrangement. However, when the parameters of design and innovation are regarded as having an influence on the whole organization (every bit shown in Figures i and 2), information technology is theoretically possible to overlay them with regard to their positions in organisational levels and relative capabilities. This convergence between design and innovation provides a comprehensive overview of design capabilities which are likely to influence innovation in particular areas and levels of business (see Effigy three).

Figure 3. Theoretical model of the blueprint innovation spectrum.

Evaluation and Finalisation of the Design Innovation Spectrum

Evaluation of the blueprint innovation spectrum by the design innovation experts revealed that it was comprehensive enough to bear witness nigh of the influences and roles of design within a house. This was especially apparent with the design practitioner (DP) and design organisation (DO) groups where all agreed that 'corporate-level design thinking' is a positive inclusion in the spectrum, to demonstrate the importance of design in business management. The manufacturing organization (MO) grouping also recognised the design innovation spectrum every bit a proficient approach to accost the 'fuzziness' of the term 'design' in manufacturing companies. Even so, the MO group and some interviewees from the DP and DO groups (interviewees DP1 and DO2) likewise recognised that including all the areas of pattern in the spectrum could lead to confusion nearly what design signifies for a visitor. They also noted that it could be overwhelming for manufacturers with piddling cognition of, or mayhap little involvement in, design to chronicle to all the areas of design, peculiarly towards the right-hand side of the spectrum (MO1, DP2, four, and DO2). This ascertainment reflects the limited recognition of design past manufacturing companies discussed earlier in the paper, and explains why the link between design and innovation in the pattern innovation spectrum is important, as information technology attempts to illustrate the relevance of the expanding role of design to 'total innovation', with which manufacturing companies are more familiar.

Some interviewees misinterpreted the Blueprint Innovation Spectrum, their defoliation arising mainly from over-simplification of the spectrum. Firstly, well-nigh interviewees saw the spectrum every bit a process from left to right; this was unintentional as it is constructed to show the parameters of Design Innovation for different levels of a whole business organisation, not as a procedure a visitor must get through to achieve better innovation. This defoliation, arising from unclear representation, was addressed by including areas of conclusion-making influences by design practitioners (white) and height managers (grey) (see Figure 4), which also addressed the outcome of representing the amount of involvement in each design innovation attribute by the people in an organisation (DP2, DP3, DP5, DO2, and DO3). For instance, in the 'Where (Business level)' attribute, the design practitioner'due south involvement is more at an activity level, whereas the height manager's involvement is more at an organisational level. Furthermore, although interviewees DP1, DP2, and MO2 suggested that the spectrum itself should be visually simpler to requite firsthand issue to an appropriate audience, the bulk of the interviewees constitute it difficult to easily associate the attributes of the Design Spectrum (Figure 1) and the Innovation Spectrum (Figure ii) in the theoretical Pattern Innovation Spectrum (Effigy 3), where they are omitted to give a simpler visual representation. Some details were therefore presented in the improved Design Innovation Spectrum (Figure 4). The spectrum attributions besides used a more recognisable analogy (Kipling method), in response to a suggestion from interviewees DP1, DP4, DP5, and MO3.

Figure four. Design innovation spectrum with improvements suggested by the experts in pattern and manufacturing.

The DP and MO groups fabricated some contradictory comments: the MO grouping all agreed that pattern has little or no issue on technology R&D in a pure scientific discipline class (TRL 1-2). However, interviewees DP2 and DP3 commented that design should touch on this, even in this early stage of innovation, non equally a new product evolution tool per se, simply as a fashion to (i) understand the needs to consider which areas of R&D are required by understanding electric current trends, new technologies/materials, user behaviour, and market place environments as described in the 'designing' area, and (ii) develop a visitor culture or environment which values creativity in the technology development by using design thinking principles to encourage experimental trouble solving and creative thought generation every bit described in the 'corporate-level design thinking' area of the design innovation spectrum. Notwithstanding, the DP grouping also recognised that this is not often practised in the real world, as it is seen as an unnecessary take chances and resource intensive (interviewees DP1, DP2, and DO1). This was also a general comment from the DP and Do group, where in an ideal situation it would be best to practise all areas of the design innovation spectrum, but it was felt at that place are many barriers to achieving this. They recognised, from their experiences, that there must be a strong need in a manufacturing business firm'southward senior management to adopt changes in design or even innovation, such as decreasing sales and market share of product(south), or increasing competition and diversification of the production range, etc. Even with these needs, some interviewees had difficulty convincing senior management to capeesh and apply the expanding roles and capabilities of pattern (interviewees DP2, DP4, DO1, and DO2), and blueprint is however firmly situated in the 'designing' expanse of the blueprint innovation spectrum (interviewees MO1 and MO2).

The Design Innovation Spectrum in Practice

The applied implications of the design innovation spectrum were studied by using example studies of manufacturing companies, recognised for their innovativeness through diverse pattern and innovation awards. The manufacturing companies identified from these initial sources were then farther investigated for company history, culture, processes, influences in the market, the philosophy of the pinnacle-level manager (CEO, managing directors, etc.), and success stories of design innovation (problem-solving) in order to understand and predict the apply of areas of the pattern innovation spectrum. As the research used secondary sources for the case study, the descriptions and examples may not represent the activities, processes, or philosophy of the overall company. Some companies provided insights using multi-channels including interviews, blog-posts, promotional videos, etc., while others provided limited information on their activities and processes. However, the instance study provides an overview of the practical implications of the blueprint innovation spectrum for innovative manufacturing companies. The benefits of using 'design' in a manufacturing company are apparent from cases identified from the design-related awards. Similarly, the benefits of 'innovation' are clear from companies which take won manufacturing-oriented awards. Furthermore, by analysing the manufacturing companies, the research found elements of pattern innovation, fifty-fifty where the company does not use the specific term 'design' in their promotional materials and websites. The cases are thus categorised using the description of the areas of the design innovation spectrum: (i) 'designing' and 'technological/product/service innovation'—the activities of a company which create artefacts or viable services to be launched in the market for a specific set of target customers, (two) 'design strategy' and 'procedure innovation', which encompass strategic level decisions to manage and/or create design and innovation processes in order to increase efficiency, feasibility, and collaboration, and (iii) 'corporate-level design thinking' and 'organisational innovation' which include the artistic direction of an entire organisation and its business model through user-centred approaches, with clear vision from top-level management or fully supported past them both authoritatively and financially.

Manufacturing firms which used designing for technical, product, and service innovation development produced exemplary products that were regarded equally innovative because of their fiscal success (dba Design Effectiveness Award and Queen's Award for Enterprise) and by the experts in blueprint and manufacturing (DME Award, EEF Award). Such companies demonstrated a common theme with their product ranges. The products variously (i) solve specific problems identified either past the users or by the company's research (or the personal insights of the founders/directors), (ii) meet users' requirements, (iii) take desirable qualities and/or aesthetics, and (iv) are timely in the market place. The influences of blueprint in producing these successful products and in new product development (NPD) were apparent with companies expressing the importance of 'good pattern' in their promotional literature, especially for consumer products. In comparison, industrial products emphasised 'engineering science' or 'functions' more strongly, using the term 'design' specific for its technical power to translate the thought into production, often as a synonym or as part of engineering. Furthermore, different perspectives (i.east., award types) provided evidence of the telescopic of blueprint's contribution to the products' success. Design-oriented awards demonstrate blueprint's ability to empathize the user and market demand, whereas the innovation award-winners tend to demonstrate a product's functional and technical abilities, emphasising efficiency and cost-savings to their customers.

The strategy level of a business determines how a company utilises design professionals' capabilities as a user/market representative, collaborative mediator, and holistic (arrangement) thinker. The 2nd category of companies demonstrated design as a catalyst to provide meliorate processes in an NPD, using production and design to enhance process innovation. The cases provide insight of how pattern strategy increases process innovation past (i) collaborating with external organisations, (ii) streamlining the production and NPD process (lean manufacturing), e.chiliad., by utilising automation and computer aided design (CAD), (three) providing a holistic overview of the process from concept to indicate of sale, and (iv) allocating artistic/collaborative space for employees. It is important to note, yet, that design acts as an agent to achieve these tasks rather than but every bit an abet. Internal collaboration is therefore a key to improving process innovation through blueprint strategy. The benefits of using design equally a strategic tool is apparent both from the literatures and the case study, and is peculiarly evident with the design-oriented awards winners where business decisions to maximise the use of design in a company yielded rewards in increased production efficiency, sales and subsequent market share and profit, and past attracting new investment. These benefits improved the companies' marketplace competitiveness, exploitation of new markets (including overseas markets), and created an innovative civilisation with greater structured employee involvement. A 'design champion' or blueprint managing director is likely to operate at this level of business, taking on the role of an advocate of pattern values in the company. In social club for a manufacturing company to become a blueprint-led business, this area of the design innovation spectrum is critical because information technology is the area where balanced decision-making must occur betwixt business concern-oriented decisions by pinnacle-level managements and the creative product/service decisions past the company's pattern practitioners.

The research found that corporate-level pattern thinking can be used to improve organisational innovation, including the business model, company culture, company vision, and strategy by using the methods and philosophy of design which emphasise creativity and user-centred approaches. Furthermore, the extent of blueprint interest in the manufacturing companies in the case study relies heavily on the drive or support from top-level management. These commitments—demonstrated in the testimonials and success stories in winning the awards—may arguably be the biased top-level manager'south point of view. It is besides difficult to decide whether blueprint thinking is used to manage modify in these companies. Yet, the manufacturing companies identified for this category clearly show that leaders identify importance on understanding users and delivering the products required to meet their demands. Design thinking in management places the users at the heart of innovation, conspicuously demonstrating a major part of design thinking in practice. Furthermore, some companies demonstrated their ability to apply business model changes to drive innovation. Entrepreneurial companies are as well likely to implement changes for the visitor more enthusiastically as they discover new business organisation possibilities while setting upwards the business. Continued innovation is important for the visitor to stay competitive in a rapidly changing market place. Unfortunately some companies included in this study have subsequently been liquidated or show very limited activity. Whatever the reasons for this, it is a reminder that recognition as an innovative manufacturing company does not necessarily guarantee continued success without top-level managers' commitment to adapt to the ever-changing market.

Use of the Design Innovation Spectrum

Virtually of the good interviewees and the literatures indicate that the use of pattern in manufacturing companies is often limited to the 'designing' expanse of the design spectrum. Here innovation becomes a disquisitional link in convincing the value of design considering manufacturing companies regard innovation equally of import, and agile conversations accept place about wider areas of the innovation spectrum. Encouraging the employ of design by providing information on the expanding spectrum of design and its effects on businesses in relation to innovation can thus provide a vital opportunity for companies to consider design when seeking to increment their innovation capabilities and subsequent global competitiveness. In society to improve explicate the total spectrum of pattern, the design innovation spectrum provides a map of design influences on improving various areas of innovation as besides demonstrated in the instance study. Furthermore, the expert interviews indicated three practical ways to increase acceptance of all areas of the Design Innovation Spectrum in the manufacturing context. Firstly, almost all the interviewees discussed the importance of a blueprint champion or leader in a visitor. This role is not ordinarily taken by designers, but past senior managers in manufacturing companies who are willing to take risks to use design more widely in various areas of a visitor, e.g., using corporate-level pattern thinking to improve the business organisation model, and even the company vision and strategy. The 2nd method the experts used to increase acceptance of pattern was edifice trust in pattern by succeeding and by exceeding expectations with smaller "activity level" projects (DP2, DP4, DP5, DO2, DO3, and MO3), and disarming senior management or the CEO that design can contribute more than in the company'due south strategic and organisational levels. Thirdly, the experts recognised that using successful case studies would be beneficial in attracting more involvement for the whole Design Innovation Spectrum. This was oft used by the DO grouping equally an initial method to explicate the apply and benefits of design at different levels and in dissimilar situations in a business (DO1, DO2, and DO3).

The design innovation spectrum can also be used as a foundation when creating a design innovation inspect tool once the total spectrum of design is recognised by the manufacturing companies, in order to identify possible improvement area(s) in which a company tin act to increase their capabilities (Chiesa, Coughlan, & Voss, 1996). Some models and frameworks are already bachelor to assess design capabilities, eastward.g., Run across project'southward blueprint ladder (Danish Design Eye, 2003), The Design Council's Design Atlas (DC, 2007) and Matchbox (DC, 2010), and Moultrie et al.'due south Pattern Audit for SMEs (Moultrie, Clarkson, & Probert, 2006). More than established government-supported innovation audit tools include Nesta's Full Innovation Index (Westlake et al., 2009), OECD/Eurostat's (2005) Oslo Manual, and Keeley et al.'due south (2013) Ten Types of Innovation. However, like many pattern and innovation researches, they measure the capabilities of either specific areas of the blueprint spectrum or the innovation spectrum separately, missing the crucial opportunity to link all design capabilities in relation to diverse areas of innovation. Furthermore, the proficient interviews revealed that only the Exercise group used The Blueprint Council's tools, and no other experts used any of the design audit tools listed above. The DP group used their own design assessment method: curt conversations with 'pattern champions' or directors of the client companies, to help them empathize the approach they should take to successfully manage a given projection rather than systematically assessing the pattern capabilities. Just one interviewee (DP3) used an auditing method extensively to place possible blueprint improvement areas in organisations, possibly because the manufacturing companies seldom run into a demand for a design inspect, every bit pattern is regarded equally an 'add-on' activity for a company (DP1 and MO1). Design audit is also regarded every bit a resource-intensive practice, lacking whatsoever clear benefit to a company (DO3). However, identifying the area of comeback requires an assessment of the current situation. The experts suggested how an inspect might be more widely adopted by manufacturing companies. Therefore, when an audit tool is beingness adult using the pattern innovation spectrum as a basic structure, the following suggestions should be considered. Firstly, it must exist usable: the assessment of pattern innovation capabilities by people and processes must exist carefully designed and packaged in a fashion which is not burdensome to the visitor. Secondly, the audit tool must exist besides flexible to represent the demand of each individual company environment (sector specific) and situation (design innovation maturity) in order to exist useful for the company to successfully manage innovation (Hansen & Birkinshaw, 2007). The pattern innovation experts interviewed during the research agreed well-nigh this unanimously, and recommended that an implementation strategy must be clearly identified in areas of prioritisation tailored to private companies.

Decision

This newspaper has identified the extensive influences of design—through designing, design strategy and corporate-level blueprint thinking—in enhancing every bit the all-encompassing parameters of innovation including technological, products/services, process, and organisational innovation. Innovation is regarded every bit a fundamental to re-establishing manufacturing strength in a chop-chop changing global market, then rather than focusing primarily on traditional technology-led development, there is a strong push for manufacturing companies to employ the expanding parameters of innovation more than broadly in areas including process and organisational innovation at both the strategic and operational levels of business to increment competitiveness. This paper establishes the expanding parameters of design (the Design Spectrum) and innovation (the Innovation Spectrum), and the link between the ii in the course of the Blueprint Innovation Spectrum, to place where and how design tin be influential in cultivating innovation. The Design Innovation Spectrum builds on and combines existing frameworks which use design equally a cognitive activeness to solve pre-defined problems, e.g., in the expanse of 'designing' within NPD, and as a style of finding an advisable route to identify opportunities among a complication of 'wicked' problems, e.g., in the surface area of corporate-level pattern thinking to utilize creativity and empathy to construct a business model. The spectrum encompasses these pattern theories, identifying their relationship to innovation at different levels of business organisation (activity, strategic, and organisational levels) to show the relevance of extensive areas of design in the business context.

For manufacturing companies which predominantly use 'pattern' equally a scientific discipline, this enquiry suggests the additional value of blueprint to manage business more creatively, in order to enhance organisational innovation (corporate-level blueprint thinking) and, for companies which are competent in about areas of innovation, the Design Innovation Spectrum provides a design-led approach to farther improve innovation and to increase competitiveness in a complex market. The pattern innovation spectrum can also be used every bit a map by profit or non-profit design support organisations when providing consultation to manufacturing companies to identify the areas of improvement appropriate to a company's state of affairs and surround. The research therefore as well recommends using the Design Innovation Spectrum as a foundation to create a design innovation audit tool to increase innovativeness. Further research is recommended: (i) create the pattern innovation audit tool in a manufacturing company setting, (2) investigate the strategic decision-making and implementation process later on the audit to identify how design innovation tin be improved in manufacturing companies, and (iii) extend the empirical research most the influence of design for innovation for companies in unlike industries, eastward.one thousand., service and structure, etc., past conducting research with advisable data sources specific to those industries.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the co-operation of all interview participants from design, innovation, and manufacturing areas in sharing their valuable cognition and experiences.

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